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For nearly four decades, states have used proxy actors to conduct cyber operations. In doing so, they profit from diverse low-intensity efforts that harass, subvert and burgle foreign competitors, often shaping favorable conditions without risking escalation. Using proxies, from mercenary groups to criminal elements and so-called “patriotic hackers,” creates a degree of plausible deniability for states and can bring other benefits as well. In some cases, for instance, criminal organizations have better access to job-specific coding talent or hacking infrastructure than the state, thus saving the state from having to commit resources to develop new capacity.

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